Exam Review: Ancient Rome and the Scientific Revolution |
Festivals
Herodotos, The Histories, c. 430 BCE In other respects the festival is celebrated almost exactly as Dionysiac festivals are in Hellas, excepting that the Egyptians have no choral dances and no plays. They also use phalli four cubits [6 feet] high, pulled by ropes, which the women carry around, and whose male genitalia are operated by strings to go up and down. A piper goes in front, and the women follow, singing hymns in honor of Dionysos. The erection of the phallus, however, which the Hellenes observe in their statues of Hermes, they did not derive from the Egyptians, but from the Pelasgians; from them the Athenians adopted it, and afterwards it passed to the other Hellenes. The Athenians, then, were the first of the Hellenes to have an erect phallus.... Letter of Demophon to Ptolemaios, c. 245 BCE Send us at your earliest opportunity the flutist Petoun with the Phrygian flutes, plus the other flutes. If it is necessary to pay him, do so, and we will reimburse you. Also, send us the eunuch Zenobius with a drum, cymbals, and castanets. The women need them for their festival. Be sure he is wearing his most elegant clothing. Get the special goat from Aristion and sent it to us. Send us also as many cheeses as you can, a new jug, and vegetables of all kinds, and fish if you have it. Your health! Throw in some policemen at the same time to accompany the boat. Strabo, Geographia, c. 20 CE A festival is celebrated every year at Acharaca; and at that time in particular those who celebrate the festival can see and hear concerning all these things; and at the festival, too, about noon, the boys and young men of the gymnasion, nude and anointed with oil, take out a bull and with haste run before him into the cave; and, when they arrive at the cave, the bull goes forward a short distance, falls, and breathes out his life. Dio Chrysostom, Or. c. 110 CE Some people attend the festival of the god out of curiousity, some for shows and contests, and many bring goods of all sorts for sale, the market folk, that is, some of whom display their crafts and manufactures while others make a show of some special learning---many, of works of tragedy or poetry, many, of prose works. Some draw worshipers from remote regions for religion's sake alone, as does the festival of Artemis at Ephesos, venerated not only in her home-city, but by Hellenes and barbarians. Lucian, De Salt., c. 160 CE The Bacchic dance is taken especially seriously in Ionia and Pontus, although it belongs to Satyric drama, and has so taken hold of people there that, in the festival time, they put aside everything else and sit the day through, watching corybants, satyrs, and shepherds; and people of the best lineage and foremost in every city dance, not in the least embarrassed but proud of it.....Each town or region celebrates the festivals of the gods with its own rites; thus, to Egyptian deities generally by lament, to the Hellenic for the most part by choruses, but to the non-Hellenic by the clangor of cymbalists, drummers, and flutists....At Delos not even the sacrifices are offered without dancing. Boy choruses assembled and, to the pipe and kithara, some moved about, singing, while the best performed a dance in accompaniment; and hymns written for such choirs are called dances-for-accompaniment." Pausanias, Description of Hellas, c. 175 CE Every year too the people of Patrai celebrate the festival Laphria in honor of their Artemis, and at it they employ a method of sacrifice peculiar to the place. Round the altar in a circle they set up logs of wood still green, each of them sixteen cubits long. On the altar within the circle is placed the driest of their wood. Just before the time of the festival they construct a smooth ascent to the altar, piling earth upon the altar steps. The festival begins with a most splendid procession in honor of Artemis, and the maiden officiating as priestess rides last in the procession upon a car yoked to deer. It is, however, not >till the next day that the sacrifice is offered, and the festival is not only a state function but also quite a popular general holiday. For the people throw alive upon the altar edible birds and every kind of victim as well; there are wild boars, deer and gazelles; some bring wolf-cubs or bear-cubs, others the full-grown beasts. They also place upon the altar fruit of cultivated trees. Next they set fire to the wood. At this point I have seen some of the beasts, including a bear, forcing their way outside at the first rush of the flames, some of them actually escaping by their strength. But those who threw them in drag them back again to the pyre. It is not remembered that anybody has ever been wounded by the beasts. Clementis Recognitiones, c. 220 CE Most men abandon themselves at festival time and holy days, and arrange for drinking and parties, and give themselves up wholly to pipes and flutes and different kinds of music and in every respect abandon themselves to drunkenness and indulgence. Letter of Aurelius Asclepiades to Aureleus Theon, c. 295 CE I desire to hire from you Tisaïs, the dancing girl, and another, to dance for us at our festival of Bacchias, for fifteen days from the 13th Phaophi by the old calendar. You shall receive as pay 36 drachmai a day, and for the whole period 3 artabai of wheat, and 15 loaves; also, three donkeys to fetch them and take them back. Temples Herodotos, The Histories, c. 430 BCE And so the word which came to Cleomenes [King of Sparta] received its fulfillment. For when he first went up into the citadel, meaning to seize it, just as he was entering the sanctuary of the goddess, in order to question her, the priestess arose from her throne, before he had passed the doors, and said, "Stranger from Sparta, depart hence, and presume not to enter the holy place---it is not lawful for a Dorian to set foot there." But he answered, "Woman, I am not a Dorian, but an Achaian." Slighting this warning, Cleomenes made his attempt, and so he was forced to retire, together with his Spartans. Inscription, Miletus, 275 BCE Whenever the priestess performs the holy rites on behalf of the city, it is not permitted for anyone to throw pieces of raw meat anywhere, before the priestess has thrown them on behalf of the city, nor is it permitted for anyone to assemble a band of maenads before the public thiasos has been assembled. And whenever a woman wishes to perform an initiation for Dionysos Bacchios in the city, in the countryside, or on the islands, she must pay a piece of gold to the priestess at each biennial celebration. Philo Judaeus, De Providentia, c. 20 CE At Ascalon, I observed an enormous population of doves in the city-squares and in every house. When I asked the explanation, I was told they belonged to the great temple of Ascalon---where one can also see wild animals of every description, and it was forbidden by the gods to catch them... New Testament, 1 Corinthians 8, c. 56 CE So about the eating of meat sacrificed to idols, we know that "there is no idol in the world," and that "there is no God but one." ...But not all have this knowledge. There are some who have been so used to idolatry up until now that, when they eat meat sacrificed to idols, their conscience, which is weak, is defiled.....If someone sees you, with your knowledge, reclining at table in the temple of an idol, may not his conscience, too, weak as it is, be "built up" to eat the meat sacrificed to idols? Ps.-Lucian, Am., c. 85 CE Around the sanctuary of Aphrodite at Knidos was an orchard, and under the most deeply-shadowy trees were cheerful picnic places for those who wanted to provide a banquet there; and some of the more well-bred used these, sparingly, but the whole city crowd held festival there, in truly Aphrodisiac fashion. And at Formiae, a benefactor staged each year a ceremony for Jupiter, at which he would distribute 20 sesterces to each of the city senators dining publicly in the grove. Plutarch, Moralia, c. 110 CE It's not the abundance of wine or the roasting of meat that makes the joy of sharing a table in a temple, but the good hope and belief that the god is present in his kindness and graciously accepts what is offered. Pausanias, Description of Hellas, c. 175 CE They say that someone uninvited entered the shrine of Isis at Tithorea and died soon after...I heard the same thing from a Phoenician in regard to a temple of Isis at Coptos. Clement of Alexandria, Stromata, c. 200 CE Sacrifices were devised by men, I do think, as a pretext for eating meals of meat. http://legacy.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/personalrelig.asp
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NOVA ROMA
by Flavia Claudia Founder, Vestal Order of Nova Roma This essay was posted to the Nova Roma mailing list in response to a question about what Romans believed happened after death. When you die ("you" being a good Roman of the Religio persuasion), you are escorted to the River Styx by spirits. There, you and the other recently life-challenged are met by Charon, the ferryman. A coin, an obolus, will have been placed in your former body's mouth to pay Charon (although an aurus gets you a better seat in the boat, some believed). This payment is not representative of money so much as of the relationship between god and man, acknowledging your debt to the gods and their protection and guidance to you. On the other side of Styx, you will pass Cerberus, the three-headed watchdog belonging to Father Dis, god of the Underworld. Cerberus will be friendly — he only becomes UNfriendly when shades try to get OUT of the Underworld unauthorized. You will go before the three judges, Minos, Rhadamanthos and Aeacus, who will ask you to account for your life. After you've made your accounting, you will be given the water of the River Lethe, the river of forgetfulness and one of five Rivers in the Underworld, which makes you forget your past life. You will be sent to the Elysian Fields (a version of paradise) if you've been a warrior or hero; The Plain of Asphodel, if you've been a good citizen, where you will continue to live a good life as a shade; or — if you've really offended the gods — to Tartarus, where you'll be punished by the Furies until your debt to society is paid. (There's no "eternal damnation" in the Roman underworld, although you can be there a pretty long time, depending on what you've done.) Your punishment depends on your crime. Every once in a while, Dis or Persephone, the Queen of the Underworld, will reprieve a candidate for the entire process and send him or her back to live again, especially if the deceased was unjustly murdered. He is given the Water of Forgetfulness and sent back across the Styx, presumably with a treat for Cerberus! (This is where the old phrase, " a sop for Cerberus" comes from — a bribe.) Dis, while he is God of the Underworld, is NOT the God of Death. He does not decide who lives and dies. Instead, this is determined by the Three Fates. However, Dis does dispatch the god of death, Mors or Thanatos, to do his duty. He also has some connection with Morpheus, god of dreams. Interestingly, Dis Pater is the only god with no name. He is known by the name of his kingdom: Hades, Pluto, or Dis, all of which refer to the secret riches of the earth. http://www.novaroma.org/religio_romana/afterlife.html Roman worship was divided into the public and the private. Families would honor their household spirits while Rome had colleges of official priests to ensure that its actions met with divine approval.
Roman religion involved cult worship. Approval from the gods did not depend on a persons behavior, but on accurate observance of religious rituals. Each god needed an image, usually a statue or relief in stone or bronze and an altar or temple at which to offer prayers and sacrifices. Quid pro quo Requests and prayers were presented to gods as a trade: if the god did what was requested (the nuncupatio), then the worshipper promised to do a particular thing in return (the solutio). This trade was binding. To persuade the gods to favor the requests, a worshipper might make offerings of food or wine, or would carry out a ritual sacrifice of an animal before eating it. The Romans believed that their gods or spirits were actively involved in their daily lives. As a result, sacred meals were held in their name during certain religious festivals. It was believed that the god actually took part in the meal: a place was set for him at the table, invitations were issued in his name, and a portion of the food served was set aside for him to enjoy. Public worship The public side of religion was more organized and more formal than the private. At home, the paterfamilias, head of the family, performed religious rituals for the household. Beyond the home, gods were worshipped by the state, which employed colleges of highly trained priests and priestesses. Roman priests The two most important colleges for priests were the augures and the collegium pontificum. Augures were priests who had been elected for life. Only they had the authority to read and interpret signs from the gods. Although they could not predict the future, augures would discover whether the gods were happy with a particular plan, such as a battle. To do this, they would watch natural phenomena, such as lightning or birds in flight. Specialists (called haruspices) were also employed to read the entrails of sacrificed animals. Collegium pontificum The collegium pontificum had four branches. The pontifices were by far the most important priests and controlled state religion. During the time of Julius Caesar, there were 16 of these priests, half of which were patrician, with the other half plebeian. The pontifices determined festival dates, assisted the emperor in his religious duties, and determined which days were legal for conducting business. They were headed by the pontifex maximus (chief priest) who, from Augustus onwards, was always the emperor. The king of sacred things The rex sacrorum, meaning king of sacred things was a patrician appointed for life and was barred from holding any other public office. Along with his wife, the regina sacrorum, he performed sacrifices on behalf of the state. The flamines were minor priests and had responsibility to a particular god. Although there were originally just 15 flamines, over time more were added to serve emperors who had been deified. The vestal virgins Finally, the vestal virgins lived at the Temple of Vesta in Rome. Vesta was the native Roman goddess of the fireplace and the six virgins tended the sacred fire, baked sacred salt cakes (mola salsa) and oversaw the care of sacred objects in the temple. Young girls from some of Romes' best families were chosen to be virgins by the pontifex maximus. Starting between the ages of six and ten, they had to serve for 30 years, but most continued to help out even after they had left. They were also expected to remain virgins and faced a severe penalty if it was discovered they had had sex they were buried alive. http://www.pbs.org/empires/romans/empire/worship.html **note: all green highlighted words are links to explanations of them
EARLY BELIEFS & INFLUENCES ON ROMAN RELIGION: Early forms of the Roman religion were animistic in nature, believing that spirits inhabited everything around them, people included. The first citizens of Rome also believed they were watched over by the spirits of their ancestors. Initially, a Capitoline Triad (possibly derived from a Sabine influence) were added to these “spirits" - the new gods included Mars, the god of war and supposed father of Romulus and Remus (founders of Rome); Quirinus, the deified Romulus who watched over the people of Rome; and lastly, Jupiter, the supreme god. They, along with the spirits, were worshipped at a temple on Capitoline Hill. Later, due to the Etruscans, the triad would change to include Jupiter who remained the supreme god; Juno, his wife and sister; and Minerva, Jupiter’s daughter. Due to the presence of Greek colonies on the Lower Peninsula, the Romans adopted many of the Greek gods as their own. Religion and myth became one. Under this Greek influence, the Roman gods became more anthropomorphic – with the human characteristics of jealousy, love, hate, etc. However, this transformation was not to the degree that existed in Greek mythology. In Rome individual expression of belief was unimportant, strict adherence to a rigid set of rituals was far more significant, thereby avoiding the hazards of religious zeal. Cities adopted their own patron deities and performed their own rituals. Temples honoring the gods would be built throughout the empire; however, these temples were considered the “home” of the god; worship occurred outside the temple. While this fusion of Roman and Greek deities influenced Rome in many ways, their religion remained practical. ROMAN RELIGION ABSORBED MANY OF THE GODS AND CULTS OF CONQUERED NATIONS. Even though there were four colleges for priests, there was no priestly class; it would always remain a public office. This practice would even extend to the imperial palace. From the time of Emperor Augustus the emperor would assume the title of pontifex maximus or chief priest. Other than the pontifexesthere were augures, individuals who read the entrails of animals and the flight of birds to interpret omens, or in other words, the will of the gods. Elaborate rituals were performed to bring Roman victory in battle, and no declaration of war or major event was undertaken without the clear approval of the gods. Dating from the time of the Etruscans, a diviner or haruspices, was always consulted, and it was considered dangerous to ignore the omens. Spurinna, a Roman soothsayer, read animal entrails and foresaw Julius Caesar’s death on the Ides of March. When Roman Commander Publius Claudius Pulcher ignored the omens - refusal of the sacred chickens to eat - before a battle during the First Punic War, he was defeated, as was his military career. As the empire expanded across the Balkans, Asia Minor and into Egypt, Roman religion absorbed many of the gods and cults of conquered nations, but the primary influence would always remain Greece. With only a few exceptions, most of the Roman gods had their Greek counterparts. This Roman mythology would have a significant influence on the empire - politically and socially - as well as on the future of western civilization. One needs only to look at the names of the days and months (Tuesday, Saturday, January and June), the languages of European nations, and the names of the planets (Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and Pluto) to realize this influence. http://www.ancient.eu/Roman_Religion/ Mircea Eliade "From Primitives to Zen": EXPIATION OF AN UMBRIAN TOWN
The following has been translated from texts inscribed in Umbrian dialect on bronze tablets from Gubbio, ancient Iguvium. Iguvium is one hundred miles north of Rome. The ritual described was probably typical of early Italian religion generally. (VI. A) This sacrifice must begin with observation of the birds, when the owl and the crow are favourable [prospering) and the woodpeckers, male and female, are on the right hand [legitimizing]. The one who goes to observe the birds must sit in a fenced enclosure and call upon the priest: 'Specify, that I observe favourable owls, favourable crows, a male woodpecker on the right hand, a female woodpecker on the right hand, birds on the right, voices of birds on the right, sent by the god.' The priest shall specify accordingly: 'Observe there favourable owls, favourable crows, a male woodpecker on the right hand, a female woodpecker on the right hand, birds on the right, voices of birds on the right, sent by the gods for me, for the community of Iguvium, at this particular time.' While he sits in his seat-the one who goes to listen to the voices of the birds-no noise [whispering] shall be made, and no one shall come between [to obstruct his view], until he has returned-i.e. the one who went to listen to the voices of the birds. If any noise is made or any person sits between [him and the birds], it shall be invalid. . . . (16) When the voices of the birds are heard, the one sitting in the enclosure shall announce it, calling the priest by name, '[I announce] favourable owls, favourable crows, a male woodpecker on the right hand, a female woodpecker on the right hand, birds on the right, voices of birds on the right hand for thee, for the community of Iguvium, at this particular time.' For all these sacred acts, for the procession about the people, for the expiation of the city, he must carry the sacred staff. The sacrificial hearth at the Treblanian gate, which is to be laid for the expiation of the city, thou shalt so arrange that fire may be kindled from fire. So likewise at the two other gates, the Tesenacan and the Veiine. Before the Treblanian gate, three oxen shall be sacrificed to Jupiter Grabovius. At the offering shall be said: 'To thee I offer prayers, 0 Jupiter Grabovius, for the Fisian city, for the town of Iguvium, for the names of the city, for the names of the town; be friendly, be gracious to the Fisian city, to the town of Iguvium, to the name of the city, to the name of the town, 0 holy one, to thee I pray with supplications, 0 Jupiter Grabovius, trusting in the sacred [sacrificial?] rite, I pray to thee with supplications, 0 Jupiter Grabovius. 0 Jupiter Grabovius, to thee [I offer] these fat oxen [as an expiation] for the Fisian city' for the town of Iguvium, for the names of -the city, for the names of the town. 'O Jupiter Grabovius, by the effect of this [offering] if in the Fisian city a fire breaks out [as a result of lightning], if in the town of Iguvium the due rites are neglected, [look upon it] as if it had been unintentional. 0 Jupiter Grabovius, if in thine offering [anything] is amiss, or neglected, or omitted, or [fraudulently] held back, or at fault, or if in thine offering there be any blemish, whether seen or unseen, 0 Jupiter Grabovius, let it be expiated by those fat oxen for an expiation, as is right. 0 Jupiter Grabovius, expiate the Fisian city, the town of Iguvium. 0 Jupiter Grabovius, expiate the name of the Fisian city, the town of Iguvium; the full citizens, the sacred rites, slaves, cattle, the fruits of the field, expiate. Be kind, be gracious with thy favour to the Fisian city, the town of Iguvium, the name of the city, the name of the town. 0 Jupiter Grabovius, preserve the Fisian city, preserve the town of Iguvium. 0 Jupiter Grabovius, preserve the Fisian city, preserve the town of Iguvium; full citizens, sacred rites, slaves, cattle, fruits of the field, preserve. Be kind, be gracious with thy favour to the Fisian city, to the town of Iguvium, the name of the city, the name of the town. 0 Jupiter Grabovius, with these fat oxen as an expiation for the Fisian city, for the town of Iguvium, for the names of the city, for the names of the town, 0 Jupiter Grabovius, I call upon thee.' http://alexm.here.ru/mirrors/www.enteract.com/jwalz/Eliade/097.html |